Monday, September 30, 2019

Liver cancer or ‘hepatocellular carcinoma’

Liver cancer or ‘hepatocellular carcinoma’ (or malignant hepatoma) is a malignant tumor that develops from the cells of the liver.   The tumor may develop from liver as the primary site, or from spread from other sites in the body (secondary cancer).   Primary cancer of the liver less frequently occurs compared to secondary cancer.   So far, in the year 2007, about 19, 000 new cases of liver cancer (both primary and secondary cancers) have developed in the year, and about 16, 800 patients have died from the disorder (NCI, 2007).   The type of treatment utilized and the outcome of the disorder depend on several factors including staging and spread of the cancer and the general health of the patient (and also other patient factors).If the disorder is detected and treated in the early stages, the outcome is usually better.   Some of the treatment methods recommended for liver cancer include surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, liver transplantation, etc.   As th e current treatment available is rather ineffective in treating liver cancers, it is necessary that newer modalities be developed to treat the condition that would be both safe and effective.   Some of the newer therapies that are being researched for liver cancers include chemotherapy, chemoembolization, immunotherapy and radiofrequency ablation (NCI, 2002).Chemoembolization is a procedure characterized by mechanically or surgically obstructing the blood supply to the liver and then administering chemotherapeutic agents into the cancerous site so as to destroy them.   As the level of chemotherapeutic agents is high at the site, they are more capable of destroying the tumor.   Besides, the risk of side-effects are less, as the chances of the drug spreading in the blood is minimal.   Chemoembolization is usually performed to treat liver cancers that cannot be treated by surgery.   However, those patients in whom the liver cancer was advanced, spread to other sites of the bo dy, or developed associated renal failure, were excluded from the study.   Out of 908 patients who were initially identified, 112 matched the criteria and were a part of the study.   The drug frequently utilized is doxorubicin.The initial results that were obtained through the study were promising.   At present, no option is currently available to treat liver cancer.   Liver transplantation may have a few limitations.   Previously arterial embolization was utilized to treat liver cancer, but the survival rates in such cases could not be determined.   In this trial, the 112 patients were divided into 3 groups, and one received arterial emobolization only, the other received chemoembolization (arterial embolization and chemotherapy) and the third received conservative treatment.   The results obtained through chemoembolization were amazing.   21 out of the 40 patients treated by this method died (survival rate was 47.5 %).On the other hand, 25 out of the 35 patients tr eated through conservative methods died (survival rate 29 %) and 25 out of 37 (survival rate 32.5 %) died from receiving treatment through arterial embolization.   However, the complete or long-term results could not be obtained through this trial, as the initial results demonstrated that chemoembolization results were very beneficial.   The one-year survival rate for chemoembolization was about 82 % and the two year survival rate was about 63 %.   The one-year survival rate for arterial embolization was 75 % and two-year survival rate was 50 %.   The one year survival rate for conservative treatment was 63 % and the two year survival rate was 27 % (NCI, 2002).Radiofrequency ablation is frequently utilized to treat liver cancers that cannot be treated by surgery or other methods.   In this technique, a specialized probe that emits certain waves, and generates heat in the tissues is utilized.   The probe generates heat, and the cancerous cells are destroyed.   This proc edure is usually conducted under anesthesia (NCI, 2002).Pancreas cancer or ‘islet-cell cancer’ is a malignant tumor that develops from the cells of the pancreas.   It is a rare form of cancer, and in the US, in 2007, about 37, 000 new cases of pancreas cancer has developed and about 33, 370 individuals died from the disorder (NCI, 2002).   Pancreatic cancer may be difficult to be diagnosed early and treated problem, as the pancreas is a tiny internal organ and usually the condition does not produce any signs or symptoms.   Presently, surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy are utilized to treat pancreatic cancer.   Immunotherapy is still undergoing research for its effectiveness and safety in treating pancreatic cancer.A clinical trial was performed to determine the effectiveness of treating pancreas cancer with gemcitabine and chemoradiation.   The effectiveness of 5-fluroracil (an chemotherapeutic agent) and radiotherapy was compared to gemcitabine, along wit h 5-fluroracil and radiotherapy.   One out of every five pancreatic tumors can be treated by surgery.   Besides, the outcome following surgery for pancreatic cancers is very poor. The tumor can recur, thus reducing the survival rates.   Presently, in the US, chemoradiation is frequently utilized along with surgery in treating pancreatic cancers.   5-Flurouracil is frequently utilized in the chemoradiation.   As the chances of recurrences are still high with this modality, researchers have suggesting a clinical trial in which an additional chemotherapeutic agent is utilized along with the standard therapy.Gemcitabine was the drug selected to be utilized along with 5-flurouracil and radiotherapy, following surgery.   The main aim of the study was to demonstrate an improved outcome or a better survival rate following use of this combination in treating pancreas cancer.   About 442 individuals were selected for this trial and were divided into 2 groups.   The individuals of both groups had undergo surgery to remove the tumor and had to also undergo chemoradiation later.   In the first group, gemcitabine was administered before and after the chemoradiation, whereas in the second group, 5-Flurouracil was administered before and after the surgery.   Tumors that developed from the head and the tail of the pancreas were included in the study.   Gemcitabine used to treat pancreatic head tumors along with chemoradiation was had a survival period of about20.6 months.On the other hand, about 16.9 months was the survival period of those who received 5-Flurouracil.   The there year survival rate in those who received gemcitabine was about 32 %, and the three year survival rate in those who received 5-Flurouracil was about 21 %.   However, the risk of side-effects was higher in individuals who received gemcitabine.   These cells tended to destroy the blood cells.   Supportive drugs seemed to be more beneficial in treating gemcitabine-induced depr ession in the blood cell counts.   The study demonstrated that gemcitabine was more effective in treating tumors arising from the head of the pancreas after surgery, than 5-Flurouracil (NCI, 2006).Another study was conducted to determine the beneficial effects of gemcitabine along surgery, and surgery alone.   The study population (consisting of 368 individuals) was divided into two groups, the first group was administered gemcitabine following surgery, and the second group was treated with surgery alone.   The study demonstrated that recurrence rates of the tumor treated with gemcitabine and surgery was much better than those treated by surgery itself.   Recurrence occurred after 13.4 months in those treated with gemcitabine and after 6.9 months in those treated with surgery alone (NCI, 2007).References:National Cancer Institute (2002), Liver Cancer – Introduction. Retrieved on April 14, 2006, from NCI Web site: https://www.cancer.gov/publications/patient-education/w yntk-liver-cancerNational Cancer Institute (2005), Islet cell cancer, Retrieved on April 14, 2006, from NCI Web site: https://www.cancer.gov/National Cancer Institute (2005), Pancreatic Cancer, Retrieved on April 14, 2006, from NCI Web site: https://www.cancer.gov/types/pancreaticNational Cancer Institute (2007), Liver Cancer Home Page. Retrieved on April 14, 2006, from NCI Web site: https://www.cancer.gov/types/liver

Sunday, September 29, 2019

African American Outline Essay

It happens to be common knowledge that throughout history African Americans have been oppressed, segregated, and disregarded as civil human beings. In the dawn of history Africans were regarded as animals and as such they would do the job of animals, however this paper will look at their sacrifices and fights to be treated as equals. United States Congress. (1866, April 9). Civil Rights Act. Retrieved from http://www. digitalhistory. uh. edu/exhibits/reconstruction/section4/section4_civrightsact1. html Amendments to the Constitution of the United States (2007)| Infoplease. It happens to be common knowledge that throughout history African Americans have been oppressed, segregated, and disregarded as civil human beings. In the dawn of history Africans were regarded as animals and as such they would do the job of animals, however this paper will look at their sacrifices and fights to be treated as equals. United States Congress. (1866, April 9). Civil Rights Act. Retrieved from http://www. digitalhistory. uh. edu/exhibits/reconstruction/section4/section4_civrightsact1. html Amendments to the Constitution of the United States (2007)| Infoplease. See more: argument essay format com http://www. infoplease. com/ipa/A0749825. html#A0749838#ixzz2VD3iU0JEhttp://www. infoplease. com/ipa/A0749825. html#A0749838 Abolishment of slavery The abolishment of slavery brought on a war, not between two countries but a war that divided a country, one that is still spoken of today. The southern or â€Å"rebel† states rose against the President of the United States in retaliation of his and many others view that no man woman or child should be a slave. All people were created equal. Amendments to the Constitution of the United States (2007)| Infoplease. com http://www. infoplease. com/ipa/A0749825. html#A0749838#ixzz2VD3iU0JEhttp://www. infoplease. com/ipa/A0749825. html#A0749838 (13th, 14th, and 15th amendments) Africans in politics Although four million African American slaves were now free they had codes placed against them, the Black Codes restricted the lives and movement of these people. In order to override the codes the 13th, 14th and 15th amendments were drafted and passed. Not only was slavery abolished but all slaves were now citizens and in such race could no longer be used to prevent the vote of a person. Africans now had a voice on who was elected and soon they had African Americans running for government offices. Corbould, C. (2009) Becoming African Americans: Black Public Life in Harlem, 1919-1939 Harvard University Press. Cambridge, MA, USA Harlem Renaissance African Americans soon were cast aside again, during the age of imperialism and leading into World War One Africans were struggling to make a life. Some fought in another war, this time not for their freedom but for the freedom from communism alongside their white counterparts. After the war ended blacks started to come together, the Harlem Renaissance was born. King, M. L. Jr. (2010) Stride Toward Freedom: The Montgomery Story. Beacon Press. Boston, MA, USA Black power movement 1954 to 1963 America saw a strong struggle for the advancement of civil rights, equality and desegregation. From every day citizens expressing their belief in being equal to their white counterparts to lawyers fighting for the equality all had deserved. These times were pivitol in an unstable America. Not only were there these movements of civil equality and black power but also a war in a far land that many Americans were against at the time. Inventions and impact. From writers, inventors and powerful leaders throughout black history there are some that are household names and some that may be forgotten. I plan on taking a look back on those who through oppression continued to strive for better for themselves and for all. African Americans today Not long ago segregation was prominent, civil rights were abused, racism and hate were common. Today we have CEO’s, congressmen and senators, military leaders and the President of the United States who are all African Americans. No longer considered a minority in many’s eyes, African Americans have literally built themselves from slaves to leaders and teachers.

Saturday, September 28, 2019

SHORT LISTENING ASSIGNMENT FORMAT Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 4

SHORT LISTENING ASSIGNMENT FORMAT - Essay Example The saxophone and the trumpet both provided smooth and consistent ride patterns for most parts in the song (www.youtube.com/watch). Cool jazz is evident because this song smoothed out a combination of swing and bop tones. Furthermore, dynamics and harmonic elements were softened in this song. The classic jazz style is also evident because the musical instruments that have been used e.g. the saxophone, drums and double bass, show the classical style of jazz music. The musical arrangement incorporates many solos, which substantially embellished the rhythm and melody with ornaments that improvise jazz music. Both the saxophone and the trumpet provided smooth swings at some points within the song. The jazz group technique that I can hear in this song is the riffs, and trading in some parts within the song. The drum in the song was significantly effectively because beat can not be filled without the rhythm of the drum. In some parts of the song where there was some silence, the drum added beats which kept the band with a better feeling. The stylish integration of the double bass and the drums also provide a consistent ride pattern all through the song (ccnmtl.columbia.edu). The song was introduced by the trumpet and saxophone which brought a pleasant feeling to the whole song. Syncopation was provided by both the piano and the drum at some points within the song. I choose to the drum because its effects were the most noticeable throughout the song. Its effects were highly noticeable all through the song, and towards the end of the song, the drum brought a conclusive touch and feel into the song. It was remarkably successful because it served all its purposes in the song effectively. I loved how the drum effects were integrated in the song.  The song is pleasing to me. I appreciate the manner in which it was delivered. The thing that I liked was the way in which the instrumentalists played their roles. One

Friday, September 27, 2019

Participation Questions week 4 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Participation Questions week 4 - Essay Example Investing in rapidly growing companies or building portfolios that assume a fairly high amount of risk are some components of aggressive finance strategies. What is difference between the aggressive and conservative financing model? Conservative funding strategy focuses on funding both its seasonal and permanent requirements with long-term debt. This type of financing model focuses on minimizing risk and preserving capital. Aggressive financing will focus on placing a higher number of assets in equities instead of safer debt securities*. Under what circumstances would you use either one? Selecting the conservative strategy will not lead to an increase in value, but it might guard against inflation. However, some funds may use an aggressive strategy then switch to a conservative later on in time. (529 plans is an example**) Therefore, depending on the overall objective, aggressive financing will allow investors to achieve maximum return sooner than the conservative strategy. I agree with you but do companies make use of short term debt only to meet seasonal requirements? I would say that it is equally applicable to all other forms of short term finance needs. The major benefit a company can expect from aggressive financing is relatively higher return as compared to long term debt. This is because short term debt is cheaper (debt servicing cost is low) than long term debt. However, it is associated with higher risk. I agree that Conservatory financing is used to finance both long term and short term requirements with long term debt. But there will still be some portion of working capital requirements that has to be met using short term financing. But yes, as you said, it is much safer and consists of relatively lower risk than the aggressive financing. According to the text, an Aggressive financing strategy is a strategy under which the firm funds its seasonal requirements with short-term debt and its permanent requirements with long-term debt. A

Thursday, September 26, 2019

Assigment 2 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Assigment 2 - Assignment Example Most of the information on the internet was in the form of advertisement luring people to some clinic or mother-baby care program. She wanted to join one but she did not have the money for that. Her primary source of information was the doctor she was visiting, magazines and the internet. She said that the first time she realized that she might be pregnant was when she felt like throwing up. She ignored it first thinking that pregnancy does not effect that early but the nausea was frequent. She went to the doctor to confirm it. After a few days she also had morning sickness and experienced wild mood swings. The weight gain followed soon. She was not bothered by it much she was expecting such symptoms. On the contrary she was relieved that there was no psychosis or any serious allergies. She also faced the opposite of departing from her relationship with her spouse; her husband turned out to be very caring. They had a few arguments every now and then but that was part of their normal life. They had arguments before the pregnancy so the new ones did not make any difference. They decided to get the baby delivered at the nearest hospital. The couple even agreed to get an appointment from the doctor that was taking care of the mother during pregnancy. Overall, the reality was much easier than the shocking expectations that the media usually portrays. She did talk about the pain during child birth (at the hospital, a normal delivery case) but she soon forgot about it when she rocked her first baby to sleep for the first time. The second mother vividly remembered what she was told about pregnancy. Most of the information came from friends and her mother. Her own mother was helping her all the way as she knew what to exactly expect. She was told that there can be complications but she needs to take care of herself. Her mom was strict about her diet and told her that if she eats right she will give birth to a healthy baby. She

Cultural impact of globalization Research Paper

Cultural impact of globalization - Research Paper Example This has caused significant impact on people’s economic, social, technological, political and cultural aspects. This paper focuses on the cultural effect that globalization has had in the modern world appreciating culture as way humans exist in a community expressed through different forms of their lives. The focus would be on how globalization has caused the emergence of new global professions, pop culture and global village. It would also discuss the effect of globalization on political culture and enhancing cultural liberty, giving the challenges that have limited the influence of globalization. The paper borrows from various secondary sources including articles from scholarly journals and books supported by evidence from newspaper articles. Introduction Globalization is a term that has been widely used in the modern business community worldwide and among governments, scholars and non-governmental organizations among other organizations. In many forums, participants have sought to demystify the gains and disadvantages involved in globalization. Globalization is deemed to have begun before the 1960s with the word being coined by Roland Robertson to describe the expansion of the policy of European colonies to subjugate parts of Africa and Asia and other underdeveloped countries globally (Razak 61). With the expansion of these colonial powers came the influence through language, customs, administration system, culture, law and order with the Europeans justifying their action as an act of bringing civilization to the uncivilized. Other than this historical explanation of globalization, the modern world has attached various meanings to this phenomenon. Also referred to as internalization, it describes the international exchange growth and the global interdependence of countries through adoption of liberalized economies where capital movement restrictions among countries have been withdrawn. It encompasses the free flow of news, information, people and capital from a country to another without subjection to restriction by the respective governments. The term Westernization has also been used by various scholars interchangeably with globalization to describe the replacement of pre-existing cultures in the underdeveloped countries with the Western culture. The impact of globalization is far reaching and encompasses various aspects of human social, economic, technological, environmental, health and cultural endeavors. Studies on culture largely depend on what and how definitions come about and the reasons for having these definitions, which could be used, modified or at times fall into disuse. According to Lieber and Weisberg (275), culture could be said to be the common form of life in a national community where there is a homogeneous lifestyle and value system and national identity forged through modernization or industrialization. It refers to the way of existence among humans expressed through the varied forms of life specific to communities. Just like other resources, culture is subject to the environment which dictates what should be done and what should not. As such, different people would have different cultures with different meanings; it includes belief, art, knowledge, customs, laws and morals. However, the physical environment has no effect on culture; it is the people who come up with cultural resources and control how they would be accessed. From the viewpoint of religion, ideology, history and tradition, culture would have a social function where the culture would exist as a whole in a society. Globalization has always been associated with the notion of cultural difference. With the increased appreciation of globaliza

Tuesday, September 24, 2019

Inclusion Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Inclusion Plan - Essay Example Many view this as a step towards the right direction as this has influenced the physically challenged to compete with those that are fit for opportunities in society, which is a move from the conventional discrimination. With this, the establishment of an inclusive plan that helps in the successive integration of persons with disabilities into an ordinary class has become the focus of many institutions, making them to be reputable organizations. In this regard, this essay will design an inclusion plan for a child with autism, in which its development will be in line with the suggestions made by those with autism, their families, caregivers, the public and the various interested partners in the community. Autism is a brain development disorder that develops in children before they attain the age of three characterized by challenges in social interaction, repetitive behavior and non-verbal communication. Autism is one of the disorders under the Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) diagnosis as in the past experts treated them as distinct subtypes. The other disorders that form the ASD umbrella are Asperger’s Syndrome and Pervasive Developmental Syndrome, not otherwise specified. Asperger syndrome abbreviated as AS is a condition under the Pervasive developmental disorder (PDD) umbrella that influences immense social interaction difficulties and non-verbal communication with those affected by the condition exhibiting repetitive behavioral patterns. AS is a contrary condition as compared to the other Pervasive developmental disorders as because of there is the retention of cognitive development and those with this condition also maintain their linguistic. In terms of costs, a household that has an autistic child spends at least sixty thousand dollars on a yearly basis in relation to the management and education of this childhood disorder in special

Monday, September 23, 2019

The Founding fathers of America Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Founding fathers of America - Essay Example The result of the revolution was the declaration of independence in 1776, they also took significant roles in the revolutionary war and established the US constitution which is arguably the best in the whole world as it comprised of top geniuses in the world. The words ‘founding fathers’ as used in reference to America is subdivided into two factions; "Signers of the Declaration of Independence"-these are the individuals as who signed the US independence declaration in the year 1776 (Burke 178). The other is the framers of the American constitution-these were the delegates fondly known as the federal convention who were involved in the drafting and final documentation of the American constitution. The final subset encompasses the group that took part in the signing of the confederation article (Jaffe 227). The reference to what founding fathers entails have also had other interpretations by historians to mean a collection of all those who took part in the struggle for the attainment of the independence in 1776. According to Richard B. Morris in 1973, he considered seven individuals as the founding fathers of America, Benjamin Franklin, George Washington, Alexander Hamilton, John Adams, John Jay, James Madison, and Thomas Jef ferson (Jaffe 234). The founding father of the America had the desire to create a nation that is God fearing and strongly anchored on Christianity, this is vividly demonstrated by the first president to the United States of America, George Washington during his inauguration when he said in 1789 that nations are obliged to acknowledge the almighty providence and strive to obey the will of the God (Meacham 277). In this sense the founding fathers of America endeavored to establish a strong Christian ground with which they expected prosperity to stem (Lambert 256). The founding fathers also single out democracy and liberty to be the driving force with which the people of America discharge

Sunday, September 22, 2019

Unit 8 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Unit 8 - Essay Example Of course, in order to fulfill these objectives, it needs to build its relationships with its suppliers in order to get the best quality coffee, then with its employees to ensure that they will provide quality service and good products to consumers as part of a great in-store experience; finally, it needs to give back to its environment and communities where it operates in. All of these prove to be consistent, coherent and in line with the financial objectives, by balancing its priorities among the stakeholders. We could see that the adoption of social responsibility to Starbucks’ overall corporate strategy is a strategic move itself, by seeing that the company operates in a larger whole such as the society, and knowing that in order for it to succeed, those who will be affected by its actions should benefit too. Not only will it give Starbucks good reputation and association; it will ensure that it is in line with its strategy in order to fulfill its objectives and live up to its mission. Do you think that Starbucks has grown rapidly because of its ethical and socially responsible activities or because it provides products and an environment that customers want? In your estimation what is the greatest challenge facing Starbucks in the future? Please explain. The success of Starbucks lies in its ability to position itself as the â€Å"place next to home.† By providing products and an environment that customers want, Starbucks has grown so rapidly. However, Starbucks sees that rapid growth and business success is not free—the more successful it is, the more people there will be to pose criticisms for the company and look for loopholes to hamper its growth. One key to having successful business and brand is being liked by the people and forces among its immediate environment. Thus, business ethics and care for its various stakeholders, while not the primary driver of success, is one

Saturday, September 21, 2019

P&G Japan Essay Example for Free

PG Japan Essay Slow, conformist and risk averse – stretch, innovation and speed Leadership Innovation Team implemented a global rollout of Dryel and Swiffer Impact – 18 months after entering the first test market they were on sales in US, Europe, Latin America and Asia Processes Performance-based component of compensation increased from traditional range of 20% to 80%. Extended the reach of stock options to virtually all employees Integrated business planning process where all budget elements of the operating plan could be reviewed and approved together Structure Primary profit responsibility shifted from PGs four regional organisation to seven GBUs that would now manage product development, manufacturing and marketing of their respective categories worldwide Charged with standardising manufacturing processes, simplifying brand portfolios and coordinating marketing activities Eliminate bureaucracy and increase accountability Committee responsibilities were transferred to individuals Activities such as accounting, human resources, payroll and much of IT were coordinated through a global business service unit Progression form Ethnocentric/Polycentric- Regiocentric – Geocentric SK-II – within PG this high-end product had little visibility outside Japan Because Japanese women had by far the highest use of beauty care products in the world, it was natural that the global beauty care category management started to regard Max Factor Japan as a potential source of innovation Working with RD labs in Cincinatti and the UK, several Japanese technologists participated on a global team that developed a new product involving a durable color base and renewable moisturising second coat – Lipfinity Japanese innovations were than transferred worldwide, as Lipfinity rolled out in Europe and the US within six months of the Japanese launch Implementation of O2005 in July 1999 – half the top 30 managers and a third of the top 3000 were new to their jobs – capabilities do not reside in management Global product development process Technology team assembled at an RD facility in Cincinnati, drawing the most qualified technologists from its PG labs worldwide US-based marketing team and Japanese team had the same task – Japanese team came up with SK-II In the end, each market ended up with a distinct product built on a common technology platform. Marketing expertise was also shared, allowing the organisation to exploit local learning Decisions Japanese Opportunity Tapping into PGs extensive technological resources – extend the SK-II line beyond its traditional product offerings Although would take a considerable amount of time and effort, it would exploit internal capabilities and external brand image Product innovation and superior in-store service – competitive advantage in Japan China Operating since 1988 only Entrepreneurial beauty care manager in China Some were worried that SK-II would be a distraction to PGs strategy of becoming a mainstream Chinese company and to its competitive goal of entering 600 Chinese cities ahead of competitors Targeting an elite consumer group with a niche product was not in keeping with the objective of reaching the 1. 2 billion population with laundry, hair care, oral care, diapers and other basics Europe De Cesare – new the European market well Without any real brand awareness or heritage, would SK-II’s mystique transfer to a Western market Organisational constraint De Cesare recognised that his decision needed to comply with the organisational reality in which it would be implemented Jager – openly questioned how well some of the products in the beauty care business fit in the PG portfolio – the fashion-linked and promotion-driven sales models neither played well to PG’s â€Å"stack it high, sell it cheap† marketing skills nor exploited its superior technologies From a local to a global focus

Friday, September 20, 2019

Analysis of Theories in Environmental Psychology

Analysis of Theories in Environmental Psychology 1. Place theory Place is used as a manner of examining the environment and breaking the environment down into conceptual components. It is difficult to examine space and environment as they are too general. To understand the concept of environmental psychology, one would firstly have to establish the meaning of place theory as peoples interaction with their physical environment is a principal in environmental psychology. The place theory has three aspects that are interlinked with each other (see figure 1). These three aspects are physical attributes, conceptions and human activities. According to Canter (1997) a place is a state of harmony created by the dialogue between human activities, conceptions and the physical attributes of the environment viewed from a historical perspective. However, Castello (2006) states that place is a unit where human experiences and physical form are fused together, creating a unitary context. The physical attributes of the place theory demonstrates the surroundings or environment in which a person finds himself, such as a bedroom, an office etc. A geographer, Edward Relph (1976), has a similar notion of place but replaced Canters (1997) aspect of conceptions with experiences. Thus, allowing more information to be gathered about the place as experiences are a result of an individuals history and everyday life. The types of human activities and the way in which it is carried out are contingent on factors such as knowledge, cultural background, values, as well as formal and informal controls (Ndubisi, 2002). As a result, the place theory suggests that places are viewed as holistic units of activities, physical form and meaning shaped by the goals and purposes of individuals. The place theory also works in concurrence with place identity and place attachment. Many researchers explore this dynamic relationship between people and place. Place identity and place attachment are concepts that demonstrate the significant relations between a person and place. Moreover, when individuals interact with their environment, they create bonds and links and their environment develops meaning. 1.1 Place identity There are many factors that shape human identity, and identity is (among other things) a product of the psychical environment (Hauge, 2007). Dixon and Durrheim (2000) state that a key moment in environmental psychologys critique of a disembodied notion of identity was the publication of Proshansky, Fabian, and Kaminoffs paper on place identity. Place identity, according to Proshansky (1987), can be defined as: a sub-structure of the self-identity of the person consisting of broadly conceived cognitions about the physical world in which individuals live. Pretty et al (2003) state that place identity is a cognitive structure which contributes to global self-categorisation and social identity processes. According to Knez (2005): Breakwell (1986, 1992, 1993), Twigger-Ross and Uzzell (1996), Twigger-Ross et al (2003), and Vignoles (2000) has suggested four processes related to place identity: place-related distinctiveness (e.g. I am a South African) place-referent continuity (e.g. I am living there because it reminds me of my past) place-related self-esteem (e.g. I am proud to live in this town) place-related self-efficacy (e.g. The town satisfies my needs and wants) Consequently, these processes encourage our self-esteem and identity as individuals. Hence the questions of who we are are often intimately related to questions of where we are (Dixon Durrheim 2000; Pretty et al 2003). The places people belong to does not just encourage their self-esteem but also their environmental preferences, and how they see themselves. Place identity could also lead to place attachment because when an individual identifies himself with the environment, individuals tend to feel attached to the same environment. 1.2 Place attachment Every single one of us has developed an unconscious bond towards some place over a period of time. It is suggested by Inalhan and Finch (2004) that the concept of place attachment is complex and multi-faceted, as place attachment has been studied by scholars from several disciplines such as; anthropology, architecture, family and consumer studies, folklore, gerontology, landscape architecture, psychology and urban planning. Place attachment can vary from place to place and can change easily depending on the degree of belonging of the person (Knez 2005). Thus, the degree of attachment a person has towards a place may determine the perceptions and satisfaction of the person in the specific place. Our attachment to a place grows with length of time living in a place and age, but mostly through positive interaction with a community. According to Milligan (1998) place attachment could be defined as: place attachment occurs when a particular interaction was accompanied by significant meaning However place attachment, according to Knez (2005), can be defined as: the affective positive bond between a person and a place; more specifically, a strong tendency of that person to maintain closeness to such a place. Many studies and researchers show that there is no single accepted definition of place attachment. The definition offered by Milligan (1998) serves a better purpose for this study. From this definition it is clear that place attachment is an emotional bond formed by an individual to a physical setting due to the meaning given to the location through processes of person-environment interactions (Casakin Kreitler, 2008). According to Halpenny (2005), one of the factors that could play a role in the formation of place attachment is satisfaction with a place. Moreover, if individuals are satisfied with their environments they tend to protect that place more and return to it. Payton (2003) and Warzecha et al (2000) state that place attachment has two main concepts that have been prevalent in literature: functional place attachment and emotional place attachment. Functional place attachment refers to the functionality or the ability of the resources to meet the needs or goals of individuals. Furthermore, functional place attachment is also closely linked to the kind of activities users pursue. This is because some activities are more complex and require specific aspects while other activities are more general. Shumaker and Taylor (1983) suggest that functional attachment is also referred to as place dependence. The concept is affected by two factors (Shumaker Taylor, 1983): The quality of place is determined by the individuals satisfaction and, The quality of the place depends on how it compares to other available places. Emotional place attachment refers to the emotional attributes of a person-place relationship and how place contributes to an individuals identity. Shumaker and Taylor (1983) declare that emotional attachment is also referred to as symbolic attachment. Moreover, emotional place attachment can be based on emotional ties to a specific place and is formed over a certain period through many encounters with the environment. According to Warzecha et al (2000), emotional place attachment may also be expressed as an identity with a symbolic meaning or idea. Place theory and all its aspects mentioned above form a fundamental starting point for any study in environmental psychology. 2. Introduction to Environmental psychology There are numerous people who do not know what environmental psychology is and what it consists of. Traditionally, environmental psychology has focused on the interrelationship between environments and human behaviour (De Young, 1999; Garling Golledge, 1993). According to Gifford (1997) individuals change the environment and their behaviour and experiences are changed by the environment. Furthermore, each individuals behaviour and experience is unique and differs from the person standing next to him/her in the same environment. These environments could be natural environments, social settings, built environments, learning environments and informational environments (Veith Arkkelin, 1995). Environmental psychology also consists of environmental psychological-processes in terms of a clear social-psychological perspective (Bonnes, 2003). These processes are individual processes such as perception, cognition and personality, and social processes such as territoriality, personal space, crowding and privacy. In addition, environmental psychology has continual elements that help to define this relatively unknown field. According to Garling and Golledge (1993), Kaplan and Kaplan (1982) these elements are: Attention Understanding an individuals behaviour begins with understanding how he/she notices and perceives the environment. This includes two types of stimuli: those that unwillingly, even distractingly, demand human notice, as well as those places, things or ideas to which humans must willingly, and with endeavour direct their awareness. Re-establishing and enhancing the individuals competence to willingly express his/her attention is a major factor in maintaining human effectiveness in an environment. Perception and cognitive maps How people perceive the natural and built environment has been an important aspect of environmental psychology. Information is memorised in the brain as spatial networks which is known a cognitive maps. This information links experiences with an individuals perception of current actions, ideas and emotions. It is through these spatial networks that individuals recognize and perceive the environment, plan and conduct these plans. Ideal environments – People have a tendency to look for places where they feel self-assured and competent, where they can familiarise themselves with the environment whilst also being engaged with it. Research has extended the concept of environmental psychology to embrace unity (a sense that things in the environment work together) and legibility (the assumption that an individual can walk around in an environment without being lost) as contributors to environmental understanding. To investigate an environment and to engage in it requires that the environment has complexity (that it has enough information and diversity to make it worth learning about) and mystery (the expectation of acquiring more information about an environment). Maintaining, re-establishing and developing an ideal environment enhances an individuals sense of well being and behavioural effectiveness in a person. Environmental stress and managing Research has recognized various behavioural and cognitive results including poor physical health, reduced selflessness and weaknesses, as well as paying no attention to the environment. Individuals can adjust their physical or social surroundings to create a more supportive environment (e.g. smaller scaled settings, territories, privacy, personal space) where they can supervise the course of information or stress inducing stimuli. Individuals can also seek to understand or make sense of circumstances as a way to resolve its stressful effects, often sharing these interpretations with other individuals as a part of their culture. Involvement – Environmental psychology is dedicated to improve an individuals participation in environmental design. It is focused not only on promoting an individuals understanding of environmental issues but on ensuring their early and actual participation in the design, adjustment and organisation of environments. Protective behaviour – Environmental psychology has also played a key role in conveying psychological awareness to abide by the matter of developing an ecologically protracting society. The field also investigates environmental attitudes, perceptions and principles as well as planned involvement techniques for promoting environmentally appropriate behaviour. These continual elements form an essential part in an individuals perception of their environment as well as what to expect in that environment. Gifford (1997) states that environmental psychology is also studied at three levels of analysis. The first level of analysis sorts and arranges each individuals occurrence of the environment according to perceptions, cognition and personality. The next level of analysis is the collective organisation of space, which consists of four aspects namely; personal space, territory, crowding and privacy. The last level of analysis is the physical settings in which individuals find themselves every day. 2.1 Level of analysis 2.1.1 Perceptions, cognition and personality As previously mentioned, individuals form certain perceptions of their environment and surroundings. According to Veith and Arkkelin (1995), perception is one of the most basic and fundamental psychological processes in which humans engage. In addition Veitch and Arkkelin (1995) also state that perceptions are highly cognitive, which means that all environments carry a set of meanings acquired through their specific attributes. Consequently, these meanings are established from the environment by the perceiver with reference to his or her personal beliefs, values and attitudes. Furthermore, Bechtel et al (2002) point out that the forming of perceptions of a physical setting is associated with a molecular approach to the spatial-physical environment. This means that it places specific attention on the discrete sensory-perceptual features of the environment. According to Bell et al (2005) the term sensory-perceptions has been applied to relatively straightforward activity of human senso ry systems in reacting to a simple stimuli and forming a perception of the particular environment. According to Bonnes et al (1995) the term environmental perception is also often used interchangeably with environmental image, mental map and cognitive map. However, according to Bell et al (2005) cognitive maps refer to a mental framework that holds some representation for the spatial arrangement of the physical environment. Furthermore, Salmi (2002) states that wayfinding and cognitive mapping are inseparable, and most humans carry many cognitive maps in their heads. Therefore, cognitive maps assist individuals with another aspect of environmental psychology namely; wayfinding. Wayfinding according to Prestopnik and Roskos-Ewoldsen (2000) can be defined as the ability to navigate successfully through the environment. However, wayfinding according to Passini (1984) can be defined as the ability to identify ones location and arrive at destinations in the environment, both cognitively and behaviourally. Prestopnik and Roskos-Ewoldsen (2000) suggests that wayfinding can not be predicted in humans as different factors; internal and external, come into play. Internal factors include aspects of each individual, such as, gender, familiarity with the environment and the types of strategies the person uses to navigate through the environment (HÃ ¶lscher et al 2006 and Spiers Maguire 2008). External factors include aspects of the physical setting, such as, the density of the built environment, the availability of meaningful landmarks, and the pattern of the streets and intersections as well as staffed information booths (Salmi 2002). HÃ ¶lscher et al (2006; 2009) identified three wayfinding strategies that are used to support route choice decisions in three dimensional multi-level buildings. Firstly, the central point strategy as sticking oneself, as much as possible, to main hallways and main places in the building, especially if the individual is unfamiliar with the building. Secondly, the direction strategy of deciding on routes that leads towards the horizontal position of the goal as directly as possible, irrespective of changes in different levels. Thirdly, the hierarchically organised navigation plan strategy. This strategy is based on cognitively sectioning the building into areas which guide navigation decisions. However, Spiers and Maguire (2008) identified their own wayfinding strategies that assist individuals with their wayfinding experience. Least-angle strategy suggests that paths are chosen that minimise deviation from the angle pointing directly to the goal. Fine-to-coarse strategy proposes that routes are planned in fine detail in the currently occupied region, but only coarsely when planning navigation between regions. Least-decision-load strategy implies that individuals will often choose the path with the least number of possible decision points. As stated above, environmental psychology and the physical environment are influenced through wayfinding in a building, cognitive maps as well as perceptions of the environment. Another aspect that influences environmental psychology is personality of an individual. Gifford (1997) pointed out that there are five reasons why personality is an important part in environmental psychology. These five reasons are: Personality is strongly linked to the physical environment; Information of a persons personality helps us to comprehend and foretell environmentally relevant behaviour; Individuals have dispositions that are particularly related to person-environment transactions; Personal dispositions are an essential aspect to one of environmental psychologys most important concepts – environmental compatibility; The notion of personality can be applied to places instead of people. Bonnes et al (1995) agree with Gifford (1997) on the third reason. They suggest that personality and the environment are related to the disposition of individuals. 2.1.2 Collective organisation of space Spatial organisation or organisation of space is considered the first major component in wayfinding design because it not only defines the wayfinding problems of future users, but also affects the ease or difficulty users will experience in comprehending and cognitively mapping the setting (Passini, 1984). According to Prestopnik and Roskos-Ewoldsen (2000) spatial orientation tasks are influenced by the familiarity of the environment. Furthermore, Iachini et al (2009) state that unfamiliar participants learn the environment through a map, whereas familiar participants rely on their long term experiences with the environment. According to Salmi (2002) there are key points to look out for in organisation of space. These points include: Architectural features in the building define different areas such as hallways, staircases etc. which assist the user with orientation in the building and increase the cognitive experience; Make sure that large-scale buildings have destination zones, such as an atrium, since it would assist the user to retrace his/her own path; Establish spatial overview opportunities so that a visitor can visualise a buildings design from different vantage points as it helps individuals to build a improved cognitive map; Consider the design of the building as a whole, the layout should not be confusing or allow visitors to get lost easily. 2.1.3 Physical settings According to Salmi (2002) physical settings must accommodate an increasingly, diverse population as it is critical that the setting be designed to be as inclusive and universally accessible as possible, addressing the requirements of a wide range of physical, sensory and cognitive abilities and needs. Veitch and Arkkelin (1995) state that any number of behaviours can occur within any physical setting. Moreover, Bell et al (2005) declare that physical settings both facilitate and constrains or limits the behaviour that occurs in it. Veitch and Arkkelin (1995) added that attitude towards an environment will influence a persons behaviours such as littering and attachment to the place. With environmental psychology being such a diverse field with many different aspects, the interactions between the four phenomenons (privacy, crowding, territoriality and personal space) help to address problems associated with environmental psychology. Gifford (1997) also states that environmental psychology is aimed at making buildings more humane and improving our relationship with the natural environment. 3. Privacy Privacy is an important phenomenon that each individual wants to achieve on a daily basis. There are many laws that have been established regarding individuals privacy, such as the right to privacy. Thus allowing individuals to have their own level of privacy. The level of privacy is measured in relation to the other social processes of environmental psychology namely; personal space, territoriality and crowding (Gifford 1997; Veitch and Arkkelin 1995, Bonnes et al 1995). In addition, according to Harris et al (1995) and Altman (1975) people use complex combinations of verbal, paraverbal, nonverbal and spatial mechanisms to attain a desired level of contact and degree of privacy. Faulkner et al (1994) state that the level of privacy is physical (sleeping, dressing) and psychological (for development and renewal). According to Demirbas and Demirkan (2000), the definition of privacy varies for each individual due to the different personal characteristics, cultural backgrounds, sex, age, economical, educational and social backgrounds. Ding (2008) defines privacy as the personal control over interactions and/or communications with others. However, Gritzalis et al (2009) state that privacy can generally be defined as the right to be left alone, meaning that it represents a sphere where it is possible to remain separate from others, anonymous and unobserved. Therefore, it is evident that privacy refers to the manner in which individuals control or regulate other individuals access to themselves. However privacy does not necessary mean withdrawing from people (Pederson, 1999; Marshall, 1972), instead it involves controlling the amount and type of contact one has with others. Gifford (1997) further declares that it is not easy to assess privacy because of its complex nature; as it has been measured in terms of preference, behaviour, need and expectation of each individual. Bonnes et al (1995) also state that the major interest of empirical research has been to study and measure the more strictly motivational and evaluative aspects such as; needs, expectations and values that individuals variously associate with privacy. Harris et al (1995) state that the universal aspects of privacy regulations are suggested by the apparent relationship between privacy, place attachment and quality of life. Cassidy (1997) pointed out that not everyone will react in the same way with regard to privacy. According to Altman (1975) and Westin (1970) there are certain characteristics that influence privacy such as: Individuals need for privacy is a continuing dynamic of changing internal and external conditions External and internal conditions are affected by privacy achieved Individuals effort to control privacy may be unsuccessful at some times Privacy can take different forms as it has many dimensions. 3.1 Types of privacy Demirbas and Demirkan (2000) also state that there are four types of privacy namely; solitude, reserve, anonymity and intimacy. Solitude refers to being alone and unobserved by others, which is either a neutral or desirable condition. Reserve, in turn, means that individuals form barriers between themselves and their environments which regulate intrusion. Anonymity is a type of privacy that gives individuals a chance to move around in a public environment without other people recognising them. Intimacy refers to an individuals aspiration to encourage close personal relationships with only preferred individuals. Additionally, Pederson (1999) identifies two more types of privacy; intimacy with family (being alone with family) and intimacy with friends (being alone with friends). According to Harris et al (1995) social functions of privacy and privacy regulation are central to psychological well-being. Privacy regulation refers to selective control over access to the self or to ones group (Altman 1975). Thus, making it clear that regulation of the types of privacy, mentioned above, is a function of both personal and situational factors. Personal factors refer to the individuals need for privacy, personal attractiveness, interpersonal skills, personality variables and ability to utilise privacy control mechanisms (Pederson, 1999). Situational factors may be social or physical. Social factors are presence, willingness and personal characteristics of others who have the potential for social interaction. Physical factors entail aspects such as barriers, location, layout and distances (Pederson, 1999). 3.2 Benefits and functions of privacy The psychological benefits of privacy reflect the function of privacy. Privacy supports social interaction which, in turn, affects our competence to deal with our world, which affects our self-definition (Altman, 1975). Therefore, the benefits of privacy arise from achieving its functions. According to Margulis (2005) the benefits of privacy are: Privacy is a basis for the development of identity, Privacy protects personal autonomy, Privacy supports healthy functioning by providing needed opportunities to relax, to ones self, to emotionally vent, to escape from the stresses of daily life, to manage bodily and sexual functions and to cope with loss, shock, and sorrow. However Keenan (2005) identifies other categories that capture the kinds of benefits privacy holds for people: Natural and psychological benefits: privacy provides physical, psychological and spiritual benefits to individuals. Individuals have certain needs, such as security and connectedness, that they want to satisfy, but invasion of privacy destroys ones sense of connectedness; Creative benefits: many people see privacy as conductive to creativity. Individuals have the need to have their own rooms where they are away from other people and regulate their privacy; Protective benefits: this refers to physical invasion of individuals sense of being safe and secure such as, the protection of ones home from burglary; Social benefits: individuals have the ability to regulate their own invasion of privacy and allow people they know or do not know to invade that privacy on a social basis; Democratic benefits: privacy is self-determining – each individual has the right to be left alone. According to Veitch snd Arkkelin (1995) the functions of privacy are: the achievement of a self-identity and the management of interactions between oneself and the social environment. According to Margulis (2005), privacy is important because it provides us with experiences that support normal psychological functioning, stable interpersonal relationships, and personal development. 3.3 Achieving privacy in design Individuals have a definite desire to a certain level of privacy in their homes. Privacy, in an architectural manner, can be defined as; the ability of individuals and families to lead their own lives without either interfering – or being interfered by the lives of others (Goodchild 1997). According to Faulkner et al (1994) a home provides privacy from outsiders with walls that protect the individual from physical, visual and various degrees of acoustical intrusion. Furthermore, Goodchild (1997) identifies three types of privacy in designing a house, whether in the house or outside the house: Firstly, privacy means circumventing problems with neighbours. Problems could arise when the layout of the resident and the type of housing is not correct such as; the walls of the enclosed area of each persons house are not high enough, which influences privacy. Secondly, privacy means a sense of seclusion. It means freedom from overlooking and freedom form invasive noise. This could be achieved by using noise insulation techniques and higher walls to increase space between neighbours. Thirdly, privacy means freedom from disturbance from other people, either guests or members of the same family, within the home. The level of privacy inside the home is determined by the number of different rooms in relation to the family size. Faulkner et al (1994) also states that the floor plan sets the privacy levels at which the home functions such as; open floor plan or closed floor plan. 3.4 Mechanisms of privacy Four aspects of privacy regulation mechanisms have been identified through data by Westin (1970) and Kent (1993). Firstly, privacy controls provide standards of behaviour for individuals and groups. Secondly, privacy creates an option between isolation and interaction, and can create the perception of being by yourself. Thirdly, individuals, groups, and societies tend to enter the privacy of others; curiosity is an example of this aspects. Fourthly, as society moves form primeval to contemporary, the physical and psychological opportunities for privacy increase. According to Bonnes et al (1995) and Altman (1975) personal space and territorial behaviour are used by individuals primarily to regulate privacy and to maintain their openness/closedness towards others at optimal levels. Additionally, Harris et al (1996) suggest that when individuals are confronted with negative privacy experiences, they will use a variety of privacy regulation mechanisms including verbal and nonverbal behaviours, cognitive, environmental, temporal and cultural mechanisms. Altman (1975) further suggests that the effectiveness and ease of implementing privacy regulation mechanisms may vary considerably across individuals and across social, physical and temporal context. Consequently, by combining these mechanisms individuals can efficiently express their needed level of privacy to others in order to attain the optimal level of privacy. Altman (1975) developed a framework for understanding the mechanisms of privacy regulation. This framework can be used as a summary of all of the above mentioned aspects of privacy (see figure 2). This figure indicates that privacy is a central concept that links the different phenomenons of environmental psychology (personal space, territoriality and crowding) with privacy regulation mechanisms. 4. Territoriality The phenomenon territoriality is extremely widespread in the field of environmental psychology since it consists of many different definitions. According to Gifford (1997) there are different variables that influence territoriality such as; dominance, conflict, security, claim staking, arousal, vigilance, behaviour and cognition to place. Gifford (1997) also states that a formal definition for territoriality is: is a pattern of behaviour and attitudes held by an individual or group that is based on perceived, attempted, or actual control of a definable physical space, object or idea that may involve habitual occupation, defense, personalisation and marking of it. However territoriality, according to Veitch and Arkkelin (1995) can be defined as: behaviour by which an organism characteristically lays claim to an area and defend it against intrusion by members of his or her own species. According to Altman (1975) territories exist to meet both physical and social needs, while being temporarily or permanently owned, controlled, marked or personalised and potentially defended by occupants or owners. On the other hand, territoriality comprises a specific set of affective, cognitive and behavioural tendencies expressed towards the territory (Altman 1975). Faulkner et al (1994) agrees with Altman (1975), however sug Analysis of Theories in Environmental Psychology Analysis of Theories in Environmental Psychology 1. Place theory Place is used as a manner of examining the environment and breaking the environment down into conceptual components. It is difficult to examine space and environment as they are too general. To understand the concept of environmental psychology, one would firstly have to establish the meaning of place theory as peoples interaction with their physical environment is a principal in environmental psychology. The place theory has three aspects that are interlinked with each other (see figure 1). These three aspects are physical attributes, conceptions and human activities. According to Canter (1997) a place is a state of harmony created by the dialogue between human activities, conceptions and the physical attributes of the environment viewed from a historical perspective. However, Castello (2006) states that place is a unit where human experiences and physical form are fused together, creating a unitary context. The physical attributes of the place theory demonstrates the surroundings or environment in which a person finds himself, such as a bedroom, an office etc. A geographer, Edward Relph (1976), has a similar notion of place but replaced Canters (1997) aspect of conceptions with experiences. Thus, allowing more information to be gathered about the place as experiences are a result of an individuals history and everyday life. The types of human activities and the way in which it is carried out are contingent on factors such as knowledge, cultural background, values, as well as formal and informal controls (Ndubisi, 2002). As a result, the place theory suggests that places are viewed as holistic units of activities, physical form and meaning shaped by the goals and purposes of individuals. The place theory also works in concurrence with place identity and place attachment. Many researchers explore this dynamic relationship between people and place. Place identity and place attachment are concepts that demonstrate the significant relations between a person and place. Moreover, when individuals interact with their environment, they create bonds and links and their environment develops meaning. 1.1 Place identity There are many factors that shape human identity, and identity is (among other things) a product of the psychical environment (Hauge, 2007). Dixon and Durrheim (2000) state that a key moment in environmental psychologys critique of a disembodied notion of identity was the publication of Proshansky, Fabian, and Kaminoffs paper on place identity. Place identity, according to Proshansky (1987), can be defined as: a sub-structure of the self-identity of the person consisting of broadly conceived cognitions about the physical world in which individuals live. Pretty et al (2003) state that place identity is a cognitive structure which contributes to global self-categorisation and social identity processes. According to Knez (2005): Breakwell (1986, 1992, 1993), Twigger-Ross and Uzzell (1996), Twigger-Ross et al (2003), and Vignoles (2000) has suggested four processes related to place identity: place-related distinctiveness (e.g. I am a South African) place-referent continuity (e.g. I am living there because it reminds me of my past) place-related self-esteem (e.g. I am proud to live in this town) place-related self-efficacy (e.g. The town satisfies my needs and wants) Consequently, these processes encourage our self-esteem and identity as individuals. Hence the questions of who we are are often intimately related to questions of where we are (Dixon Durrheim 2000; Pretty et al 2003). The places people belong to does not just encourage their self-esteem but also their environmental preferences, and how they see themselves. Place identity could also lead to place attachment because when an individual identifies himself with the environment, individuals tend to feel attached to the same environment. 1.2 Place attachment Every single one of us has developed an unconscious bond towards some place over a period of time. It is suggested by Inalhan and Finch (2004) that the concept of place attachment is complex and multi-faceted, as place attachment has been studied by scholars from several disciplines such as; anthropology, architecture, family and consumer studies, folklore, gerontology, landscape architecture, psychology and urban planning. Place attachment can vary from place to place and can change easily depending on the degree of belonging of the person (Knez 2005). Thus, the degree of attachment a person has towards a place may determine the perceptions and satisfaction of the person in the specific place. Our attachment to a place grows with length of time living in a place and age, but mostly through positive interaction with a community. According to Milligan (1998) place attachment could be defined as: place attachment occurs when a particular interaction was accompanied by significant meaning However place attachment, according to Knez (2005), can be defined as: the affective positive bond between a person and a place; more specifically, a strong tendency of that person to maintain closeness to such a place. Many studies and researchers show that there is no single accepted definition of place attachment. The definition offered by Milligan (1998) serves a better purpose for this study. From this definition it is clear that place attachment is an emotional bond formed by an individual to a physical setting due to the meaning given to the location through processes of person-environment interactions (Casakin Kreitler, 2008). According to Halpenny (2005), one of the factors that could play a role in the formation of place attachment is satisfaction with a place. Moreover, if individuals are satisfied with their environments they tend to protect that place more and return to it. Payton (2003) and Warzecha et al (2000) state that place attachment has two main concepts that have been prevalent in literature: functional place attachment and emotional place attachment. Functional place attachment refers to the functionality or the ability of the resources to meet the needs or goals of individuals. Furthermore, functional place attachment is also closely linked to the kind of activities users pursue. This is because some activities are more complex and require specific aspects while other activities are more general. Shumaker and Taylor (1983) suggest that functional attachment is also referred to as place dependence. The concept is affected by two factors (Shumaker Taylor, 1983): The quality of place is determined by the individuals satisfaction and, The quality of the place depends on how it compares to other available places. Emotional place attachment refers to the emotional attributes of a person-place relationship and how place contributes to an individuals identity. Shumaker and Taylor (1983) declare that emotional attachment is also referred to as symbolic attachment. Moreover, emotional place attachment can be based on emotional ties to a specific place and is formed over a certain period through many encounters with the environment. According to Warzecha et al (2000), emotional place attachment may also be expressed as an identity with a symbolic meaning or idea. Place theory and all its aspects mentioned above form a fundamental starting point for any study in environmental psychology. 2. Introduction to Environmental psychology There are numerous people who do not know what environmental psychology is and what it consists of. Traditionally, environmental psychology has focused on the interrelationship between environments and human behaviour (De Young, 1999; Garling Golledge, 1993). According to Gifford (1997) individuals change the environment and their behaviour and experiences are changed by the environment. Furthermore, each individuals behaviour and experience is unique and differs from the person standing next to him/her in the same environment. These environments could be natural environments, social settings, built environments, learning environments and informational environments (Veith Arkkelin, 1995). Environmental psychology also consists of environmental psychological-processes in terms of a clear social-psychological perspective (Bonnes, 2003). These processes are individual processes such as perception, cognition and personality, and social processes such as territoriality, personal space, crowding and privacy. In addition, environmental psychology has continual elements that help to define this relatively unknown field. According to Garling and Golledge (1993), Kaplan and Kaplan (1982) these elements are: Attention Understanding an individuals behaviour begins with understanding how he/she notices and perceives the environment. This includes two types of stimuli: those that unwillingly, even distractingly, demand human notice, as well as those places, things or ideas to which humans must willingly, and with endeavour direct their awareness. Re-establishing and enhancing the individuals competence to willingly express his/her attention is a major factor in maintaining human effectiveness in an environment. Perception and cognitive maps How people perceive the natural and built environment has been an important aspect of environmental psychology. Information is memorised in the brain as spatial networks which is known a cognitive maps. This information links experiences with an individuals perception of current actions, ideas and emotions. It is through these spatial networks that individuals recognize and perceive the environment, plan and conduct these plans. Ideal environments – People have a tendency to look for places where they feel self-assured and competent, where they can familiarise themselves with the environment whilst also being engaged with it. Research has extended the concept of environmental psychology to embrace unity (a sense that things in the environment work together) and legibility (the assumption that an individual can walk around in an environment without being lost) as contributors to environmental understanding. To investigate an environment and to engage in it requires that the environment has complexity (that it has enough information and diversity to make it worth learning about) and mystery (the expectation of acquiring more information about an environment). Maintaining, re-establishing and developing an ideal environment enhances an individuals sense of well being and behavioural effectiveness in a person. Environmental stress and managing Research has recognized various behavioural and cognitive results including poor physical health, reduced selflessness and weaknesses, as well as paying no attention to the environment. Individuals can adjust their physical or social surroundings to create a more supportive environment (e.g. smaller scaled settings, territories, privacy, personal space) where they can supervise the course of information or stress inducing stimuli. Individuals can also seek to understand or make sense of circumstances as a way to resolve its stressful effects, often sharing these interpretations with other individuals as a part of their culture. Involvement – Environmental psychology is dedicated to improve an individuals participation in environmental design. It is focused not only on promoting an individuals understanding of environmental issues but on ensuring their early and actual participation in the design, adjustment and organisation of environments. Protective behaviour – Environmental psychology has also played a key role in conveying psychological awareness to abide by the matter of developing an ecologically protracting society. The field also investigates environmental attitudes, perceptions and principles as well as planned involvement techniques for promoting environmentally appropriate behaviour. These continual elements form an essential part in an individuals perception of their environment as well as what to expect in that environment. Gifford (1997) states that environmental psychology is also studied at three levels of analysis. The first level of analysis sorts and arranges each individuals occurrence of the environment according to perceptions, cognition and personality. The next level of analysis is the collective organisation of space, which consists of four aspects namely; personal space, territory, crowding and privacy. The last level of analysis is the physical settings in which individuals find themselves every day. 2.1 Level of analysis 2.1.1 Perceptions, cognition and personality As previously mentioned, individuals form certain perceptions of their environment and surroundings. According to Veith and Arkkelin (1995), perception is one of the most basic and fundamental psychological processes in which humans engage. In addition Veitch and Arkkelin (1995) also state that perceptions are highly cognitive, which means that all environments carry a set of meanings acquired through their specific attributes. Consequently, these meanings are established from the environment by the perceiver with reference to his or her personal beliefs, values and attitudes. Furthermore, Bechtel et al (2002) point out that the forming of perceptions of a physical setting is associated with a molecular approach to the spatial-physical environment. This means that it places specific attention on the discrete sensory-perceptual features of the environment. According to Bell et al (2005) the term sensory-perceptions has been applied to relatively straightforward activity of human senso ry systems in reacting to a simple stimuli and forming a perception of the particular environment. According to Bonnes et al (1995) the term environmental perception is also often used interchangeably with environmental image, mental map and cognitive map. However, according to Bell et al (2005) cognitive maps refer to a mental framework that holds some representation for the spatial arrangement of the physical environment. Furthermore, Salmi (2002) states that wayfinding and cognitive mapping are inseparable, and most humans carry many cognitive maps in their heads. Therefore, cognitive maps assist individuals with another aspect of environmental psychology namely; wayfinding. Wayfinding according to Prestopnik and Roskos-Ewoldsen (2000) can be defined as the ability to navigate successfully through the environment. However, wayfinding according to Passini (1984) can be defined as the ability to identify ones location and arrive at destinations in the environment, both cognitively and behaviourally. Prestopnik and Roskos-Ewoldsen (2000) suggests that wayfinding can not be predicted in humans as different factors; internal and external, come into play. Internal factors include aspects of each individual, such as, gender, familiarity with the environment and the types of strategies the person uses to navigate through the environment (HÃ ¶lscher et al 2006 and Spiers Maguire 2008). External factors include aspects of the physical setting, such as, the density of the built environment, the availability of meaningful landmarks, and the pattern of the streets and intersections as well as staffed information booths (Salmi 2002). HÃ ¶lscher et al (2006; 2009) identified three wayfinding strategies that are used to support route choice decisions in three dimensional multi-level buildings. Firstly, the central point strategy as sticking oneself, as much as possible, to main hallways and main places in the building, especially if the individual is unfamiliar with the building. Secondly, the direction strategy of deciding on routes that leads towards the horizontal position of the goal as directly as possible, irrespective of changes in different levels. Thirdly, the hierarchically organised navigation plan strategy. This strategy is based on cognitively sectioning the building into areas which guide navigation decisions. However, Spiers and Maguire (2008) identified their own wayfinding strategies that assist individuals with their wayfinding experience. Least-angle strategy suggests that paths are chosen that minimise deviation from the angle pointing directly to the goal. Fine-to-coarse strategy proposes that routes are planned in fine detail in the currently occupied region, but only coarsely when planning navigation between regions. Least-decision-load strategy implies that individuals will often choose the path with the least number of possible decision points. As stated above, environmental psychology and the physical environment are influenced through wayfinding in a building, cognitive maps as well as perceptions of the environment. Another aspect that influences environmental psychology is personality of an individual. Gifford (1997) pointed out that there are five reasons why personality is an important part in environmental psychology. These five reasons are: Personality is strongly linked to the physical environment; Information of a persons personality helps us to comprehend and foretell environmentally relevant behaviour; Individuals have dispositions that are particularly related to person-environment transactions; Personal dispositions are an essential aspect to one of environmental psychologys most important concepts – environmental compatibility; The notion of personality can be applied to places instead of people. Bonnes et al (1995) agree with Gifford (1997) on the third reason. They suggest that personality and the environment are related to the disposition of individuals. 2.1.2 Collective organisation of space Spatial organisation or organisation of space is considered the first major component in wayfinding design because it not only defines the wayfinding problems of future users, but also affects the ease or difficulty users will experience in comprehending and cognitively mapping the setting (Passini, 1984). According to Prestopnik and Roskos-Ewoldsen (2000) spatial orientation tasks are influenced by the familiarity of the environment. Furthermore, Iachini et al (2009) state that unfamiliar participants learn the environment through a map, whereas familiar participants rely on their long term experiences with the environment. According to Salmi (2002) there are key points to look out for in organisation of space. These points include: Architectural features in the building define different areas such as hallways, staircases etc. which assist the user with orientation in the building and increase the cognitive experience; Make sure that large-scale buildings have destination zones, such as an atrium, since it would assist the user to retrace his/her own path; Establish spatial overview opportunities so that a visitor can visualise a buildings design from different vantage points as it helps individuals to build a improved cognitive map; Consider the design of the building as a whole, the layout should not be confusing or allow visitors to get lost easily. 2.1.3 Physical settings According to Salmi (2002) physical settings must accommodate an increasingly, diverse population as it is critical that the setting be designed to be as inclusive and universally accessible as possible, addressing the requirements of a wide range of physical, sensory and cognitive abilities and needs. Veitch and Arkkelin (1995) state that any number of behaviours can occur within any physical setting. Moreover, Bell et al (2005) declare that physical settings both facilitate and constrains or limits the behaviour that occurs in it. Veitch and Arkkelin (1995) added that attitude towards an environment will influence a persons behaviours such as littering and attachment to the place. With environmental psychology being such a diverse field with many different aspects, the interactions between the four phenomenons (privacy, crowding, territoriality and personal space) help to address problems associated with environmental psychology. Gifford (1997) also states that environmental psychology is aimed at making buildings more humane and improving our relationship with the natural environment. 3. Privacy Privacy is an important phenomenon that each individual wants to achieve on a daily basis. There are many laws that have been established regarding individuals privacy, such as the right to privacy. Thus allowing individuals to have their own level of privacy. The level of privacy is measured in relation to the other social processes of environmental psychology namely; personal space, territoriality and crowding (Gifford 1997; Veitch and Arkkelin 1995, Bonnes et al 1995). In addition, according to Harris et al (1995) and Altman (1975) people use complex combinations of verbal, paraverbal, nonverbal and spatial mechanisms to attain a desired level of contact and degree of privacy. Faulkner et al (1994) state that the level of privacy is physical (sleeping, dressing) and psychological (for development and renewal). According to Demirbas and Demirkan (2000), the definition of privacy varies for each individual due to the different personal characteristics, cultural backgrounds, sex, age, economical, educational and social backgrounds. Ding (2008) defines privacy as the personal control over interactions and/or communications with others. However, Gritzalis et al (2009) state that privacy can generally be defined as the right to be left alone, meaning that it represents a sphere where it is possible to remain separate from others, anonymous and unobserved. Therefore, it is evident that privacy refers to the manner in which individuals control or regulate other individuals access to themselves. However privacy does not necessary mean withdrawing from people (Pederson, 1999; Marshall, 1972), instead it involves controlling the amount and type of contact one has with others. Gifford (1997) further declares that it is not easy to assess privacy because of its complex nature; as it has been measured in terms of preference, behaviour, need and expectation of each individual. Bonnes et al (1995) also state that the major interest of empirical research has been to study and measure the more strictly motivational and evaluative aspects such as; needs, expectations and values that individuals variously associate with privacy. Harris et al (1995) state that the universal aspects of privacy regulations are suggested by the apparent relationship between privacy, place attachment and quality of life. Cassidy (1997) pointed out that not everyone will react in the same way with regard to privacy. According to Altman (1975) and Westin (1970) there are certain characteristics that influence privacy such as: Individuals need for privacy is a continuing dynamic of changing internal and external conditions External and internal conditions are affected by privacy achieved Individuals effort to control privacy may be unsuccessful at some times Privacy can take different forms as it has many dimensions. 3.1 Types of privacy Demirbas and Demirkan (2000) also state that there are four types of privacy namely; solitude, reserve, anonymity and intimacy. Solitude refers to being alone and unobserved by others, which is either a neutral or desirable condition. Reserve, in turn, means that individuals form barriers between themselves and their environments which regulate intrusion. Anonymity is a type of privacy that gives individuals a chance to move around in a public environment without other people recognising them. Intimacy refers to an individuals aspiration to encourage close personal relationships with only preferred individuals. Additionally, Pederson (1999) identifies two more types of privacy; intimacy with family (being alone with family) and intimacy with friends (being alone with friends). According to Harris et al (1995) social functions of privacy and privacy regulation are central to psychological well-being. Privacy regulation refers to selective control over access to the self or to ones group (Altman 1975). Thus, making it clear that regulation of the types of privacy, mentioned above, is a function of both personal and situational factors. Personal factors refer to the individuals need for privacy, personal attractiveness, interpersonal skills, personality variables and ability to utilise privacy control mechanisms (Pederson, 1999). Situational factors may be social or physical. Social factors are presence, willingness and personal characteristics of others who have the potential for social interaction. Physical factors entail aspects such as barriers, location, layout and distances (Pederson, 1999). 3.2 Benefits and functions of privacy The psychological benefits of privacy reflect the function of privacy. Privacy supports social interaction which, in turn, affects our competence to deal with our world, which affects our self-definition (Altman, 1975). Therefore, the benefits of privacy arise from achieving its functions. According to Margulis (2005) the benefits of privacy are: Privacy is a basis for the development of identity, Privacy protects personal autonomy, Privacy supports healthy functioning by providing needed opportunities to relax, to ones self, to emotionally vent, to escape from the stresses of daily life, to manage bodily and sexual functions and to cope with loss, shock, and sorrow. However Keenan (2005) identifies other categories that capture the kinds of benefits privacy holds for people: Natural and psychological benefits: privacy provides physical, psychological and spiritual benefits to individuals. Individuals have certain needs, such as security and connectedness, that they want to satisfy, but invasion of privacy destroys ones sense of connectedness; Creative benefits: many people see privacy as conductive to creativity. Individuals have the need to have their own rooms where they are away from other people and regulate their privacy; Protective benefits: this refers to physical invasion of individuals sense of being safe and secure such as, the protection of ones home from burglary; Social benefits: individuals have the ability to regulate their own invasion of privacy and allow people they know or do not know to invade that privacy on a social basis; Democratic benefits: privacy is self-determining – each individual has the right to be left alone. According to Veitch snd Arkkelin (1995) the functions of privacy are: the achievement of a self-identity and the management of interactions between oneself and the social environment. According to Margulis (2005), privacy is important because it provides us with experiences that support normal psychological functioning, stable interpersonal relationships, and personal development. 3.3 Achieving privacy in design Individuals have a definite desire to a certain level of privacy in their homes. Privacy, in an architectural manner, can be defined as; the ability of individuals and families to lead their own lives without either interfering – or being interfered by the lives of others (Goodchild 1997). According to Faulkner et al (1994) a home provides privacy from outsiders with walls that protect the individual from physical, visual and various degrees of acoustical intrusion. Furthermore, Goodchild (1997) identifies three types of privacy in designing a house, whether in the house or outside the house: Firstly, privacy means circumventing problems with neighbours. Problems could arise when the layout of the resident and the type of housing is not correct such as; the walls of the enclosed area of each persons house are not high enough, which influences privacy. Secondly, privacy means a sense of seclusion. It means freedom from overlooking and freedom form invasive noise. This could be achieved by using noise insulation techniques and higher walls to increase space between neighbours. Thirdly, privacy means freedom from disturbance from other people, either guests or members of the same family, within the home. The level of privacy inside the home is determined by the number of different rooms in relation to the family size. Faulkner et al (1994) also states that the floor plan sets the privacy levels at which the home functions such as; open floor plan or closed floor plan. 3.4 Mechanisms of privacy Four aspects of privacy regulation mechanisms have been identified through data by Westin (1970) and Kent (1993). Firstly, privacy controls provide standards of behaviour for individuals and groups. Secondly, privacy creates an option between isolation and interaction, and can create the perception of being by yourself. Thirdly, individuals, groups, and societies tend to enter the privacy of others; curiosity is an example of this aspects. Fourthly, as society moves form primeval to contemporary, the physical and psychological opportunities for privacy increase. According to Bonnes et al (1995) and Altman (1975) personal space and territorial behaviour are used by individuals primarily to regulate privacy and to maintain their openness/closedness towards others at optimal levels. Additionally, Harris et al (1996) suggest that when individuals are confronted with negative privacy experiences, they will use a variety of privacy regulation mechanisms including verbal and nonverbal behaviours, cognitive, environmental, temporal and cultural mechanisms. Altman (1975) further suggests that the effectiveness and ease of implementing privacy regulation mechanisms may vary considerably across individuals and across social, physical and temporal context. Consequently, by combining these mechanisms individuals can efficiently express their needed level of privacy to others in order to attain the optimal level of privacy. Altman (1975) developed a framework for understanding the mechanisms of privacy regulation. This framework can be used as a summary of all of the above mentioned aspects of privacy (see figure 2). This figure indicates that privacy is a central concept that links the different phenomenons of environmental psychology (personal space, territoriality and crowding) with privacy regulation mechanisms. 4. Territoriality The phenomenon territoriality is extremely widespread in the field of environmental psychology since it consists of many different definitions. According to Gifford (1997) there are different variables that influence territoriality such as; dominance, conflict, security, claim staking, arousal, vigilance, behaviour and cognition to place. Gifford (1997) also states that a formal definition for territoriality is: is a pattern of behaviour and attitudes held by an individual or group that is based on perceived, attempted, or actual control of a definable physical space, object or idea that may involve habitual occupation, defense, personalisation and marking of it. However territoriality, according to Veitch and Arkkelin (1995) can be defined as: behaviour by which an organism characteristically lays claim to an area and defend it against intrusion by members of his or her own species. According to Altman (1975) territories exist to meet both physical and social needs, while being temporarily or permanently owned, controlled, marked or personalised and potentially defended by occupants or owners. On the other hand, territoriality comprises a specific set of affective, cognitive and behavioural tendencies expressed towards the territory (Altman 1975). Faulkner et al (1994) agrees with Altman (1975), however sug

Thursday, September 19, 2019

Time Transfixed :: Essays Papers

Time Transfixed RENE MARGRITTE, TIME TRANSFIXED, 1938 Time transfixed by Rene Margritte is a surrealistic painting. By watching the painting We see a very sharp and clear painting with dark colors close to the red. The painting look so real that fools the eye and the observer has the impression that it is a computer graphic and not a real painting. The composition it’s ruled by straight diagonal lines. But there are some vertical lines to break the monotony and to relax our eye. Our vision goes straight to the fireplace because it’s the only object on white and attracts our attention. It is a strange composition. There is a fireplace and a train coming through it. It’s the train that travels through the time. But why come through the fireplace? That because is surrealistic. On the top of the fireplace are two candles. The candles are not lit. But the painting is illuminated by natural light coming from the right. The candles symbolize the knowledge. In meddle of two candles is a black watch showing 1 o’clock. The watch symbolizes time and the mystery of time! On the back is a mirror. It reflects only the shape of the candle and the watch and nothing else. There is void space on the mirror. That’s because the mirror symbolizes the mystery of the Universe and our ignorance for the mysteries that Universe hides and the forth dimension â€Å"TIME†. By seeing the painting the observers has the impression that there is void space in the room too. The mirror and the fireplace, which looks like an empty box, give that impression. We don’ t know if there is void space in the room because we see only a part of it.

Wednesday, September 18, 2019

Essay on the Character of Offred in The Handmaids Tale

The Character of Offred in The Handmaid's Tale Offred is one of the main characters in The Handmaid's Tale. She was the faithful wife of Luke, mother of an eleven month old child and a working woman, before she entered the Republic of Gilead. She was given the name "Offred", when she entered Gilead. This was to make it known that she was a handmaid. Offred becomes psychologically programmed in Gilead as a handmaid, and the mistress of the commander who is in power of all things. She was used for her ovaries to reproduce a child, because they are living in an age where birth rates are declining. Offred was ordered by Serena Joy, the handmaid's barren wife who develops some jealousy and envy towards her to become the lover of Nick. Nick is the family chauffeur, and Offred becomes deeply in love with him. At the end of all the confusion, mixed emotions, jealousy, envy and chaos towards her, she escapes the Republic of Gilead. Offred is given treatment and advantages by the commander that none of the there handmaids are given. During the times the commander and Offred were seeing each other secretly, he began to develop some feelings for her that he tried to hide. Somewhere along the times when Offred and the commander began having secret meetings with each other, Offred too began to develop some feelings for the commander. Offred is also a special handmaid, because she has actually experienced love, the satisfaction of having a child years before. She knows what it is to feel loved, to be in love and to have someone love you. That is all when she has knowledge, a job, a family and money of her own. That is when her life was complete. Because all of that has been taken away from... ...adn't noticed....." (p. 209). Touching was forbidden during the ceremony and showed a sign of emotion and enjoyment, in which he was not supposed to do at all. He had just been caught up in the moment and almost forgot about Serena Joy, his poor barren wife. Offred had been though many mixed feelings throughout this entire book. She has been able to feel, experience and thinks thoughts that she had not ever imagined that she would have. Offred can not escape the fact that in spite of the treatment from Serena Joy and the commander, that they both will have if not already have an impact on her life. Not to mention Nick also. Nick gave her the comfort and the security that she wanted, and at the end nothing done to her by the commander or his wife mattered to her. Living in the Republic of Gilead will always be a memory that she will probably try to forget.